Introduction: Exploration, whether it be by land, sea, or air invigorates Americans and constitutes a source of American pride. Satisfying their curious and thrill-seeking inclinations, exploring is a one of a kind facet for humanity. While instinctive force continually drives human exploration, the need for advanced and sophisticated methods became apparent in the 1950s. Towards the end of the latter decade, the Cold War—a “war” of political tension between powers in the Eastern and Western Blocs—seemed to be far from over. Foreign relations impacted both the way Americans and Russians were living their lives and the attitude of the United States toward other countries. Americans and Russians living in fear because of intense geopolitical tension swiftly made the way for competition on many fronts including: political ideology, nuclear weapons, and lastly space exploration. While both political ideology and nuclear weapons became sources of checks-and-balances, Russia came forward in an unprecedented way in the field of exploration; however, the United States is presently the supreme leader in the realm today.
Russia's Satellite - Sputnik I
Historical Context: The Soviet Union and Sputnik History was written on October 4, 1957, as the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik I, that the world had ever seen. Dating back to the 1950s/post-World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union were diligently working on the development of modern technology to satisfy the stated objective of the Internal Council of Scientific Unions to launch something into space in either late 1957 or 1958. The Soviet launch of Sputnik I was not only undoubtedly groundbreaking, but it was also timed to line up with the International Geophysical Year, which is a solar period in which satellite launch is ideal. The main purpose of the mission was fueled by Soviet desire to be the first ones successfully in the space realm. Capturing worldwide attention and publicity, Sputnik caught the American people completely off-guard. The technical specifications of the spacecraft made apparent just how advanced the Soviets were technologically. With a size similar to that of a beach ball, Sputnik weighed 183.9 pounds. Moreover, the satellite took a mind-blowing 98 minutes to orbit the Earth as it soared through space at 18,000 miles per hour. The magnitude of the technical achievement, which undermined the United States belief and associated mentality as the world’s technological leader, provoked greater and more sinister concerns in the minds of Americans. Specifically, the American people began questioning the Soviets’ new and coming rocket technology as the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) was tested during the same year. Subsequently, Americans quickly became fearful that the Soviets would apply their proven capabilities with spacecraft to missiles; specifically, launching missiles equipped with nuclear weapons towards the United States. In response to these growing fears and the larger concern of falling behind in technological development, the United States Defense Department and policymakers triggered rapid growth and promotion of weapons and space programs in the form of increased funding. In the meantime, Sputnik II, with a launch date of November 3, 1957, marked another milestone as this spacecraft carried more weight and was the first to be occupied by an animal—a space dog named Laika. By the end of 1957, the Soviet Union had three spacecraft actively orbiting the Earth, each with approximately 90-minute orbit times, making for a total of 48 orbits per day.
Formation of NASA Upon completion of Sputnik I, this reality “shake-up” sparked the realization and need for efforts on behalf of the United States to leap-frog Russia. The United States’ response to Sputnik I was quite fragmented, meaning that several minor actions were taken, but no one body or agency had all-encompassing responsibilities regarding space. There was no need for added infrastructure and associated spending when no credible threat was present. However, in late October 1957, that all changed. To promote the United States and its strong stance against Russia in the Space Race, a nation-wide response was needed to bolster the support of and enthuse the American people. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was officially formed on July 29th, 1958 through the passage of The National Aeronautics and Space Act by Congress and its signing by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, which effectively dissolved NASA’s predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Consequently, NASA became fully operational on October 1, 1958. As the logistical centerpiece in the areas of space exploration and aeronautics, NASA has built a long track record with an overwhelming amount of achievement. NASA has launched 181 missions in its history to date, and arguably, has made some of the largest advances in science on the planet. With a concentration on the 1960s, the three most significant missions included Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo.
Mercury Spacecraft hovering over Earth
The Beginning of the Future: Project Mercury Project Mercury—better known as the first NASA human spaceflight program that landed astronauts in space—consisted of six missions from 1961 to 1963. For that reason, Project Mercury had profound effects on NASA and thus, United States space exploration. As the body of knowledge surrounding space exploration was not immense at the time, this early program helped lay the foundation. As expected, the objectives were relatively basic from today’s point of view, but back then, these objectives were perceived as legitimate challenges. More importantly, the accomplishments during these missions are taken for granted by NASA and Americans, but are worth analyzing in retrospect.
Gemini Spacecraft
The Stepping Stone: Project Gemini Project Gemini, named after the third constellation of the Zodiac, was profoundly important as this program served as a springboard for the goal of the decade—the later Apollo moon landings in 1969. Lasting nineteen months (April 1965 - November 1966), each of the ten manned missions accomplished a unique and noteworthy objective. The two missions that arguably present themselves as the most significant are Gemini 5 and Gemini 8. Focusing on the former mission, launched on August 21, 1965, Gemini 5 housed astronauts Gordon Cooper and Charles Conrad. Like all others, this mission had a list of objectives including but not limited to: the performance of a multi-day flight, analysis of effects of weightlessness on the astronauts, and the performance of rendezvous and maneuvering stunts. The near completion of all previously stated objectives, except for one rendezvous stunt, was highly satisfying for NASA. This indicated that NASA was slightly more prepared. Gemini 8, which was launched 523 days after Gemini 5, differed with the addition of first-time objectives such as parking, docking, and activity external to the spacecraft. In the end, several successful parking episodes and the first docking every performed in space assured NASA that unquestionably required procedures for further explorative efforts could be accomplished. Both missions signify the degree of professionalism and competency of NASA’s astronauts as well as the preparation and precision of aeronautical operations both on the ground and in the air. However, what makes this mission so important is that all the objectives completed were, in retrospect, integral parts of the Apollo missions; so much so, that without their completion in this program, Apollo may not have been achievable.
Neil Armstrong stepping foot on the Moon on July 20, 1969
A Goal Becomes a Reality: Apollo Missions The climax of the decade, to President John F. Kennedy’s great satisfaction, occurred on July 20, 1969—with the landing of the Apollo 11 mission on the Moon. In late May of 1961, President Kennedy announced his goal for the nation—sending a man to the Moon and back safely by the end of the decade. Ultimately proving to be a challenge for NASA, it was nevertheless conquered. Project Apollo, comprising eleven spaceflights performed from 1968 to 1972, resulted in six Moon-landing missions and twelve astronauts walking the Moon. The first of these astronauts, whom gained instant fame included Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins. Project Apollo served as a pinnacle of human achievement in this time. This was a breathtaking achievement for everybody around the globe, Soviets and Americans alike. To conceptualize the first-ever landing of a man on another body in our solar system makes for a mind-boggling task. After such a monumental success like that of the Apollo Program, the opening of endless possibilities for the United States made anything seem possible. Space exploration rose to a new level as these missions facilitated exploration at further distances. While not only marginalizing the competition; America, with time, dedication, effort, money, and patriotism, was led exceptionally well by NASA.
Click here to watch the launch of Apollo 11 including Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, and Michael Collins.
Rhetorical Analysis: NASA had an immense influence on not only 1960s America, but also on American popular culture and lifestyle including furniture, children’s toys, media (magazines and newspapers), and entertainment. To effectively examine the breadth of NASA’s impact, it is necessary to rhetorically analyze both primary and scholarly sources using different mediums of delivery. In the sections to follow, evaluation of John F. Kennedy’s Moon Shot Speech, the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, and two scholarly articles titled Project Gemini and Manned Space Flight will be carried about.
John F. Kennedy addresses Congress on May 25, 1961 with his Moon Shot Speech
John F. Kennedy’s Moon Shot Speech Delivered before a joint session of Congress on May 25th, 1961, John F. Kennedy spoke out about America and his vision for our great nation. As the 35th President of the United States of America, JFK presented several arguments that reflect his support and desire for NASA and its further development. By listening to his speech and reading its transcript, one can see his deep association and sincere attitude with respect to the politics of the Space Race.
Immediately, JFK acknowledges the recent Soviet space activity and the impression that it left with Americans. Americans were taken by surprise as they witnessed major Soviet milestones such as Sputnik. Kennedy, through logical reasoning, saw that it was prime time for the United States to act. Kennedy culminated positive energy within Americans to invigorate the United States effort’ to tip the scale and become a superior force in space. Moments later, Kennedy states, “I believe we possess all the resources and talents necessary. But the facts of the matter are that we have never made the national decisions or marshaled the national resources required for such leadership. We have never specified long-range goals on an urgent time schedule, or managed our resources and our time so as to insure their fulfillment.” This statement arouses hope and optimism within the American people since before this point it seemed that Soviet successes outnumbered those of the United States. However, JFK revitalizes the American people by speaking of the past, present, and future. Discouraging pessimistic attitudes regarding future efforts of the United States to overcome the Soviet Union, JFK acknowledges the credible threat of the Soviet Union, but does not forget to state that America is forced to take its own initiative.
If any one line of speech was the most influential, in my opinion, it would be, “For while we cannot guarantee that we shall one day be first, we can guarantee that any failure to make this effort will make us last.” Kennedy reasonably argues that the lack of activity on behalf of the United States will not stop the Soviets from making progressive advancements. In the height of the Cold War, the Soviet Union has taken this opportunity to exert its influence more than ever, creating an obstacle for the United States to jump over. Putting the situation in context, he cannot promise what Americans want to hear; however, he will not let America suffer in the face of the Space Race. Ascending to worldwide leader in space is a moving target as there are several acting forces including technological advancements, funding, and complexity of infrastructure.
Upon the blatant display of Kennedy’s passion, confidence, and unwavering plan for further action, he conveys to Congress through numbers the ways in which money will be allocated. JFK argues that if the nation is serious in pursuing its competition through the Space Race, then substantial expenditures are needed to do address the issue correctly. While a viewer is given Kennedy’s stance (pro-spending and journeying to the Moon), he advises Americans to carefully think about the advantages and the disadvantages of such action for themselves. If money is spent inefficiently or if all Americans directly involved in the Space Race are not concentrating on our advancement in space, the United States will be set back further. In simpler terms, Kennedy has planted the seed in the minds of his viewers as to the merits of Space Exploration. He wants to utilize this speech to gather Americans’ reactions to gauge their interest level and the likelihood of success if executed.
Film cover for the 1968 film
Planet of the Apes Directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, an accomplished figure in the film industry, this 1968 film tells the turbulent story of an astronaut. While forced to crash land on what initially seems to be an atypical planet in a faraway place, the surviving crew eventually comes to their senses. In a radically different setting than they perceived themselves in, the crew stumbles upon a community of lives apes that are surprisingly like humans in both intelligence and communication. Rooted in the ideas of spaceships, planets, and “faraway” places, this film is a prime example of how Hollywood felt the effects of both NASA and Space Race. Numerous motion pictures produced during this period revolved around space.
Undoubtedly classified as a science fiction film, Planet of the Apes and its chaotic plot imitate several themes of the 1960s Space Race; primarily, space travel and exploration. Furthermore, NASA’s influence can be seen through certain aspects of the film. Examining the movie based primarily on emotion, the cast succeeded in the creation of scenes that provoked feelings like those experienced by Americans during the actual Space Race. From the beginning of the film to the end, viewers become engrossed in the film’s action, which is unpredictable and at times, turbulent. In effect, the film is displaying to its viewers the same characteristics of early NASA programs such as Project Mercury and Project Gemini. Building on the latter statement, while there are many successes during missions, astronauts being caught off guard is not an irregular occurrence by any means. Progressing through the film, a viewer, logically, can observe the significance behavior holds in determining outcomes. Above all, the film enables viewers to watch it through the same lens they use when they are looking at NASA. Indirectly, NASA affected what Americans watch at their leisure; that is, movies.
Ed White, hovering for more than thirty minutes, completed the first space rendezvous performed by a NASA astronaut
Project Gemini Using this 1968 scholarly article from The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, James M. Grimwood, the Manned Spacecraft Center historian and Ivan D. Ertel, the Manned Spacecraft Center assistant historian, convey specific information on the key events within each Gemini mission. By giving readers a pointed analysis, not only are the positive contribution of NASA toward space exploration highlighted, but the reliability of the source is also conveyed through the creation of logos. By its nature and placement in this scholarly journal for Texas history journal, the article is intended to reach Texans while also gearing itself toward those who have a passion or profession relating to NASA or the space industry.
One quote that presents itself as an argument reads, “If you took a guy and in a period of two days you whisked him from California to Florida and put him on top of the rocket and shot him off, he'd probably be a basket case, because it would be a very traumatic thing…if you precede this event by, literally, thousands of little stairsteps, just getting closer to it . . . then by the time he gets ready to fly, it seems like a normal and natural thing, because he's been thinking about it for a couple of years and he's crept up on it by little training increments.” In the authors’ opinions, it is of utmost importance to let the adaption process take its time with respect to training and conditioning, especially with such a large adaptation. As this quote and the corresponding section in the article is just a fraction of the entire work, Grimwood and Ertel can interweave the importance training possesses in space exploration with commentary on astronauts and extravehicular activity. Upon reading the full text and keeping the credibility of each author in mind, it is hard to legitimately deny the claims and/or information disclosed as both Grimwood and Ertel have had extensive experience within the field. Logos is frequently represented as the authors’ logic acts to persuade readers by reason on the benefits of NASA. In simpler terms, NASA is an agency promoting positive achievement and growth through advancements in technology and infrastructure.
Manned Space Flight Like the source analyzed immediately above, this 1962 issue, Manned Space Flight, was authored by Brainerd Holmes, Director of Manned Space Flight Programs for NASA. Found in the American Institute of Biological Sciences, the article makes use of the same two appeals—ethos and logos—in nearly identical fashions. When applied properly, like in this article, the rhetorical appeals can prove to be invaluable as they allow the reader to become more comfortable with what is being said, ultimately leading them to let their guards down and trust the information disclosed.
Recognizing Gemini, Program Aims, Project Mercury, Apollo, One-Day Missions, the possibility of an Earth Orbit Rendezvous, and problems, Holmes’ ethos is boosted. By recognizing select problems, Holmes can give a balanced account of NASA while also boosting the readers’ perception of the agency. Holmes is hoping to get readers to thinker better of NASA as the benefits sharply contrast and outnumber the drawbacks mentioned. A quote that brings the reader directly to the premise of the article through logical appeals reads, “Man's judgment and man's curiosity, as exemplified by the manned space flights that have occurred to date, support the premise that man is our most effective tool in space exploration.” In this quote, Holmes is emphasizing the main qualitative features needed to effectively explore space. NASA complements this statement by relying only on those astronauts who have sound judgment and an elevated level of curiosity, giving them a sense of fearlessness when traveling somewhere new. Throughout the article, Holmes creates a theme of United States dominance and supremacy. Through Holmes’ rhetoric, he shows his desire to influence the pathos of readers as words get put inside their heads. Arousing both happiness and joy within readers as NASA’s potential is unleashed, Holmes creates a mindset within the readers’ mind that is meant to serve as a way to culminate optimism, excitement, and even nationalistic sentiments in the context of the Space Race.
Argument on Lasting Affects: The Space Race of the 1960s has had long-lasting effects on the world we live in today. A thorough analysis will be done on each of the following: Trump’s signing of a bill authorizing space agency funding and the exploration of Mars as a goal of NASA, and NASA’s provision of Soviet missile testing monitoring and weather data to the U.S. military.
On March 21, 2017, President Trump signed a bill that authorized $19.5 billion dollars in funding for NASA this budget year. Trump said, "For almost six decades, NASA's work has inspired millions and millions of Americans to imagine distant worlds and a better future right here on earth…I'm delighted to sign this bill. It's been a long time since a bill like this has been signed, reaffirming our commitment to the core mission of NASA: human space exploration, space science and technology." This quote explicitly illustrates that to remain as a worldwide leader in space, we must invest money in our country’s space agency, which has seen a lack in both funding and prosperity for years, especially under the Obama Administration. $19.5 billion will allow NASA to make monumental advances toward achieving its newest goal established by Trump—putting a man on Mars. Outside of the United States, Mars One—a mission with origins in the Netherlands is currently scheduled to have a permanent human colony on the planet by 2025.
Largely unknown to the public until recently, classified information is a big part of NASA’s operations. NASA has hidden relations with both the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The seven currently existent relationships are centered on different operational areas are titled, “NASA as a consumer of intelligence, NASA's assistance to analyzing intelligence on foreign aeronautical and space programs, NASA's participation in cover stories, NASA's acquisition and use of classified technologies in its lunar exploration program, Restrictions on NASA's remote sensing programs, NASA's application satellites and national security requirements, and Space Shuttle.” Within each of these relationships, NASA acts as the liaison between the international world and the United States Federal Government, providing information which is utterly important for national security and foreign relation purposes. Providing anything from weather data to the United States military to detecting Soviet missile tests, NASA is the source of invaluable real-time information and data.
Conclusion: From NASA’s inception in 1958—approximately 21, 535 days ago—the world has undergone radical changes ranging from leadership to foreign relations. However, one things that has remained in existence for approximately 59 years is NASA. With changes occurring in these 59 years that have forever changed the world we live in, NASA is constantly working on innovation for the future. NASA and associated staff who possess unique insights and foresights into space exploration, science, and technology are in constant contact with the United States Federal Government to stay on top or. The day that the United States fall behind as a worldwide leader in space exploration will be the day that NASA chokes and falls. Hopefully, the latter will never happen to the greatest country in the world.